| Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) | Lowest cost per kWh at 1 to 4 hours, mature supply chain, bankable | Needs thermal management and fire-safety design; capacity fades with cycling and heat | 1 – 4 h | Most C&I, residential and grid projects |
| Sodium-ion | No lithium or cobalt, good cold-weather performance, improving safety profile | Lower energy density, shorter field track record | 1 – 4 h | Cost-sensitive stationary storage, cold sites |
| Electrostatic | Very high cycle counts, high power, wide temperature window, low fire risk | Higher cost per kWh, fewer large reference projects | < 1 – 2 h | Frequent cycling, hot climates, occupied buildings, power quality |
| Flow (vanadium redox) | Long duration, electrolyte that does not wear out, power and energy sized separately | Large footprint, higher upfront cost, best at scale | 4 – 10 h + | Grid-scale and long-duration shifting |
| Advanced lead-carbon | Low upfront cost, established recycling route | Limited depth of discharge and cycle life | 2 – 6 h | Standby backup with infrequent cycling |
| Hybrid systems | Pair a high-power technology with a high-energy one to get both | More complex controls and integration | project-specific | Microgrids with heavy step loads, grid services plus shifting |